A Forest School Journey

Woodlands can be split into two main categories, broadleaved (deciduous) and coniferous. These can then be further broken down into categories depending on which trees and species make up the majority of the ecosystem. Here I am going to look at the major differences between broad-leaved and coniferous woodlands in terms of structure and biodiversity.

Purpose

Broadleaved woodlands are often thought of as the natural British woodlands and this is often the case as most ancient woodlands in this country consist of broadleaf species. However, many broadleaved woodlands are now man-made and therefore heavily managed. Coniferous woodlands are often purpose planted for commercial reasons which means they are often made up of a low number of species, to ensure profit. Any competing plants are often removed before they establish themselves, leading to low levels of biodiversity.

Flora

As the name suggests, Coniferous woodlands are made up mostly of conifers such as firs, yews, spruces, pines, and cedars. These trees have needle-like leaves and reproduce using seeds inside pine cones. The trees are often packed very tightly which stops light from reaching the lower levels of the woodlands and means that the ground and field layers are usually not present. Flowering plants are not common here as they need high levels of light to survive. The soil is often very acidic and sandy which means that many species are not adapted to survive here. The age of the trees in a coniferous woodland is often quite uniform as they have been planted all at the same time for a purpose. However, depending on the management of the woodlands, some areas will have been felled and therefore contain younger trees. Leaf litter in a coniferous woodland is predominantly made up of fallen pine needles.

Broadleaved woodlands are made up of a wide range of trees, the most common being oaks, beeches, ashes, and birches. As the name suggests, the leaves are commonly flat and broadleaved and seeds are usually produced from flowers and fruits in different forms. As the trees are often more spaced out, clearer layers can be identified and more species can be found in the ground layer, field layer, and understory. If the broadleaved woodlands are naturally occurring, the age of the trees can vary a lot. Leaf litter in a broadleaved woodland can vary greatly depending on which species are present. 

Fauna

Due to the low levels of flora diversity in coniferous woodlands, there are also low levels of fauna. The lack of a field layer can mean that there is not enough food to support many ground-dwelling animals. Some insects and birds can survive though, as can many animals who are adapted to eating pine cones such as squirrels. The opposite is true in a broadleaved woodland. Oak woodlands are thought to be the most biodiverse of all and have been reported to support around 423 species of invertebrates as well as mammals such as deer, badgers, and bats.

References

http://learningintheleaves.co.uk/woodland-ecological-structures

http://www.thenewforestguide.co.uk/management/woodland-layers

http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/woodland_manage

http://learningintheleaves.co.uk/coniferousbroad-leaves-woodlands

https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/british-trees/a-z-of-british-trees/

DK “What’s that tree?” Published 2013

Mushrooms are an integral part of a healthy woodland. The soil is interlaced with many types of fungi but it is not until Autumn time that many of them sprout their mushrooms due to the moist conditions that they require to feed and grow.  Mushrooms feed on the dead matter such as dead leaves and wood which are common on woodland floors. They recycle the nutrients in this detritus and return them to the soil in a format that other trees and plants can easily access. Their job is then to release spores into the air to help spread the fungi even further.

As Autumn is the best time to see mushrooms in the woods, I took a trip to my local pinewoods and went on some mushroom hunting. I identified four mushrooms in the time I spent there but I’m sure a longer trip would have produced even more!

Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria)

This is the famous “fairyland” mushroom. It has a bright red cap with white spots and gills and grows among pine, birch and spruce woodland. It is therefore common in the Formby Pinewoods! Fly Agaric is well known as a poisonous, hallucinogenic mushroom and was historically used as an insecticide (hence the name).

Firerug Inkcap (Coprinus atramentarius)

The Inkcap was all over the forest floor during my visit. It was identified through bell-shaped brown cap with a darker center. They often grow on dead wood and are very widespread in the UK.

Jelly Ear Fungus (Auricularia auricularia-judae)

This Jelly Ear Fungus was found on a standing piece of deadwood. It had a brown/red colour and had a velvety texture. This mushroom is very popular in Chinese food and used to be used for medicine too. However, it is unwise to eat it raw if you can get past its strange texture.

Velvet Shank (Flammulina velutipes)

These mushrooms were found on a collapsed dead bit of wood. They are a common sight in the winter months and grow in clusters on decaying wood. They can be identified by their orange/brown caps with a slimy appearance when wet. These mushrooms are often used in food but like most mushrooms, they need to be cooked.

References

https://treesforlife.org.uk/into-the-forest/habitats-and-ecology/ecology/fungi-95/

https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/fungi-and-lichens/fly-agaric/

https://www.first-nature.com/fungi/coprinellus-domesticus.php

https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/fungi-and-lichens/jelly-ear/

https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/fungi/velvet-shank

The Sefton Coast Woodlands were originally planted at the beginning of the 20th Century. The first plantations were in Formby in 1784 and this developed into the woods we know now, spanning 420 hectares. The woods spread from Formby to Southport and are split into many compartments, each with a different owner. Historically this has caused a lack of management due to no common long term vision. As many of the trees were planted at the same time, they were becoming mature together causing a lack of biodiversity. The spacing between the trees was also too small, meaning that the canopy was too thick to allow light to develop the lower layers of the woods. One of the main reasons for the plantation of the pine woods, as well as to stabilise the sand dunes, was to sell timber and make a profit. This meant that during the second world war, large areas were felled without any replantation.

Thankfully in 2003 a document was published called “The Working Plan for the Sefton Coast Woodlands”. This 20-year plan was created by the landowners coming together to decide how to best manage the woodlands sustainably. The key issues are no longer commercial but are based on what is best for the woodlands themselves.

The document goes into depth about how to tackle a number of aims:

1. Creating a “healthy” age profile

The aim is to diversify the ages of the trees in the woods. As mentioned above, many of the trees were planted at around the same time over 100 years ago. In the 20 year plan, it is suggested that 90% of the woodlands are split into three categories based on their age, as shown in the chart below. The final 10% will either be left to mature into “character” woodlands or be left bare as on the sand dunes. By creating a healthier age profile, the woods will be much more biodiverse in terms of plants and animals.

2. Maintaining a focus on pine species to provide food for red squirrels and to maintain the woodland character

The majority of the pine woods are made up of Scots Pine and Corsican Pine trees which provide the ideal habitat for our population of Red Squirrels. As this is one of the few refuges left in the UK for Red Squirrels, it is important to maintain their food source which is largely made up of pine cones. The plan aims to increase the percentage of Scots Pine to 30-40% as the cones are dropped earlier in the season which gives the squirrels a bigger source of food in the winter.

3. Maintaining indigenous mixed broadleaf up to and no more than 10% of the woods

The broadleaf trees in the woods provide diversity, enabling more species to live in the woods by providing food and shelter. In particular, the sycamore tree provides an extra food source for the squirrels in the spring months. However, an excess of broadleaf trees may enable the grey squirrel to take up a foothold which can have a significant impact on the red squirrel population. This means that broadleaf trees need managing so that they take up less than 10% of the woodland. This is carried out using mainly coppicing, especially for elm trees and sycamore.

4. Maintaining dead wood where this is possible

Dead wood is an important part of a woodland ecosystem as it provides a habitat for different types of fungi and invertebrates. It also helps to support the bird and bat populations. The plan aims to maintain dead wood in areas that are isolated from public access. This is mostly for health and safety reasons but also takes into account that many people visit the woods for its beauty and dead wood may be unsightly.

5. Working towards a mosaic of woodland structures

As mentioned above, commercial interests have historically been very important in the Sefton pinewoods and the most profitable woods are made up of trees of uniform age and composition. This plan moves away from the money-making aspects of the woods and encourages stands to be mixed in age and species to promote biodiversity. This means an end to felling areas of the woods and then replanting them. Instead, trees will be taken out around existing gaps in the canopy. Where there are gaps which are undergoing natural regeneration, more trees may be taken out to encourage this.

6. Providing habitats for certain priority species

As has already been mentioned, the Sefton pinewoods are one of the few squirrel refuges left in the country. They are also the home to a number of endangered birds and bats. This must be taken into account when planning the management techniques to be used. Many trees contain nesting boxes for birds and bats. The canopy must also be considered when thinning the woods as the red squirrels need mature trees to make canopy bridges so that they can travel through the woods. However, as some of the pine stands are under thinned, some thinning will be needed in certain areas.

7. Ensuring an economic return where possible

Whilst the woods move away from commercial interests in terms of management, many of the landowners will still need to make a living. The plan, therefore, takes this into account and tries to ensure that there is an economic return where possible.

References

https://www.merseyforest.org.uk/our-work/sefton-coastal-woodlands/

https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/formby/features/red-squirrels-at-formby

A Working Plan for the Sefton Coast Woodlands, 2003-2023

An important part of my Forest School training has been to learn how to identify a range of fauna and flora, both on the site where I take our children, and when I’m out and about. Since my training I have been interested in identifying any plants and trees I come across and have enjoyed looking at the differences between them. The ability to identify flora and fauna is extremely important in a Forest School leader for a number of reasons.

Some plants are harmful to humans

As part of Forest School visits, we have to risk assess the environment to ensure that it is safe for our group. There are a number of plants and fungi which are dangerous to humans, whether it’s just from a sting or a worse case of poisoning. Although the children are told not to put anything in their mouths during our trips out, it is important to safeguard them by having an understanding of which plants we need to watch out for so we can reduce the likelihood of the children coming across them.

Here is the poisonous plants guide I have created for our sessions:

poisonous plants guide

Using materials for activities

A knowledge of which woods are the most useful for different activities can make a Forest School session much easier! Making fires, in particular, requires different types of wood. The ability to identify the surrounding trees means that a Forest School Leader can more efficiently collect the right wood to make a great fire. It is also useful to know which woods are best to use for things like weaving and building.

Having a positive impact on our environment

In our sessions, we teach the children that we need to leave the woods exactly how we found it by collecting any unnatural resources like playdough, paper, and pens before we leave. Our Forest School sessions should also have a positive impact on our environment and we can help to conserve our woods if we know which plants and animals are considered endangered. In the woods, we visit there are a number of such animals and plants and it is very important for me, as a Forest School Leader, to be able to identify these species when we see them.

Educating our children

This is perhaps the most obvious reason of all! In our Forest School sessions, we are aiming to educate our children about the woods and if a child asks me what a certain plant is, I need to be able to tell them. By having a knowledge of the different flora and fauna in our environment, I can pass this knowledge onto my group. It is just as important to show children how they can find out what species are if they don’t know, I therefore show them how to use different guides and keys when we are unsure.

The plants and trees in British Woodlands can be divided into different layers according to their height. The number of layers found can be affected by many things such as the local conditions and climate as well as the biodiversity found in the woods. They also differ greatly in different woodland types. More layers can be identified in deciduous woodlands than in their coniferous counterparts as the trees are less tightly packed. This means that more light can penetrate the canopy and reach the lower layers, making it easier for shrubs and plants to grow there. Here we will look at the four layers which are widely accepted to be visible in most deciduous woodlands, the ground layer, the field layer, the understory, and the canopy.

Ground Layer

The woodland floor is covered in biological detritus such as decaying leaves and wood. This provides a moist, often darker habitat for species like mosses, fungi, and ivy to grow. This is a very diverse area of the woodlands as it provides a home for a whole host of invertebrates such as springtails, woodlice, and millipedes among others.

Field Layer

The field or herb layer depends greatly on how much light can penetrate the upper layers which means it is not present in coniferous woodlands. It provides a home to a variety of ferns, herbs, grasses, and wildflowers such as bluebells, primroses, wood sorrel and wood anemones. This layer provides a great food source for insects and other animals.

Understory

The understory comes just below the canopy and is dominated by tree species which don’t need a lot of light such as hazel, hawthorn, and rowan. It also contains saplings of the trees which will eventually grow to make up the canopy. The understory is an important layer for small woodland birds who will often build their nests here.

Canopy

The tallest layer is the canopy which contains the most mature trees in the woodland. In this country, it is often dominated by native trees such as oak, ash, beech, and birch and provides nesting sites for bigger birds. The leaf distribution on the branches of these trees is the most important factor deciding how much light can reach the lower levels and therefore the biodiversity of the woodland.

In reality, woodlands can contain more or fewer vertical layers than these four, often including sublayers. Layers are not always separate as plants such as ivy and mosses can grow up tree trunks and branches in order to find more light. However, these four layers are a good starting point when attempting to identify the flora and fauna in British woodlands.

References

http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/wodland_manage/struct.htm

http://learningintheleaves.co.uk/woodland-ecological-structures

http://www.thenewforestguide.co.uk/management/woodland-layers/

Open University – Neighbourhood Nature Course